As we are in 2015, here’s a look at the top 10 emerging technology trends that are poised to take off in a big way.
Mobile payment systems
The growing popularity of Apple Pay will cause a wider
acceptance of mobile payment systems – a technology segment that does away with
the need for physical cash by allowing you to make payments with your
smartphone.
Also called as
digital wallets or e-Wallets, mobile payment systems allow you to make in-store
and online payments as well as money transfers by downloading an app onto your
phone and linking the service or app account to a bank account or credit/debit
card.
Popular mobile
payment systems, other than Apple Pay include Google Wallet, PayPal, LevelUp
and Square Wallet. As of now, a majority of these are available only in the US,
though we may some of them expand to other countries in the coming year.
Apps for on-demand services
On-demand radio and TV apps are dime a dozen. But in
2014, we saw the rise of other on-demand apps that proved real life savers by
giving you an urgent ride back home and meals delivered in no time.
While this year saw
a flood of radio cabs and food delivery apps catering to your needs, not to
mention the rich and the lazy, you can expect on-demand services to expand into
other segments, too, including on-demand beauty services, hotel reservations
and even emergency health services.
Beacons
Beacon technology uses
Bluetooth to sense the location of a device and work with apps to carry out
certain operations. In the coming year, we may see several applications making
use of this technology.
Social payments
Messaging app Line recently launched Line Pay to
allow users to transfer money and purchase items directly from the app. The
service will also let users pay for goods when offline.
Payments via social
apps are quite common in China and Korea, where WeChat and Kakao Talk are
dominant players.
Globally, mobile
payments through social apps are an emerging trend and we’ve already seen some
early adopters including Snapchat. Facebook and Twitter are also
working on in-app payment services on their respective platforms.
WebRTC for mobile devices
Media streaming is picking up at an exceptional pace, but
with a majority of activity being carried out on smartphones there’s a pressing
need for quick load times in videos, games and other media without compromising
too much on the quality.
Ephemerality
Self-destructing photo and video app, Snapchat, many have
joined the ephemerality band wagon and we expect this trend to grow.
Earlier this year,
Facebook offered to buy Snapchat for over $3 billion. On being turned down, the
social-networking giant introduced a similar service called Slingshot.
Facebook-owned Instagram launched Bolt, which is currently available in limited
countries. Wickr and Frankly, on the other hand, are self-destructing messaging
apps.
While security
remains a primary concern, the nature of ephemeral apps has made it a popular
among younger users. In the future, we may see the feature built into existing
messaging services rather than just standalone apps.
Smartwatches
Apple Watch set to release in 2015, this is definitely
going to be one of the most watched trends for the upcoming year. Sure the
Apple Watch’s square design hasn’t appealed to a lot of hard core fans and yes
there are questions about whether the battery life of this smart wearable from
Apple will be up to the mark, but that hasn’t stopped it from being one of the
most awaited devices.
Cheaper 3D printing
3D printing which allows users “to print
three dimensional solid objects from a digital file” is a trend that will only
bigger from 2015 onwards.
Connected Homes and Cars
From Google’s I/O conference to the Apple WWDC 2014, the
smart home concept was definitely the most talked about this year, and it’s
likely that we will more on these two fronts from both Apple and Google.
Apple introduced
HomeKit during its annual developers conference this year and essentially the
app will allow users to connect their iPhone/iPad and control things like
garage doors, lights, security cameras, even thermostats and switches. Users
can just control these through Siri.
Cloud Computing
This basically allows centralised data
storage and computers can access this data. Clouds can be classified as public,
private or hybrid. Essentially cloud computing allows you to store data online
and access it whenever you need it.
If you’re wondering how to spend a lazy afternoon during the weekend, here’s a fun way. Get familiar with ‘fun facts.’.To begin with, that’s exactly what you need to type into a Google search bar.
Just type in ‘fun facts’ or ‘I’m feeling curious’ and hit enter, and let Google do the rest.
This latest trick that Google has incorporated in its search algorithm will end up taking away a lot of your time. So I recommend you try it when you’re not working.
Whatsapp is the best instant messaging app for Android, iOS
and Windows phone users. Whatsapp for Windows 10, 8, 7 is that app to use on
your computer. Because, it is the best application to communicate with friends
and family. For its amazing features like text and multimedia sending, voice
calling, now it is on the top.
Now it is not only an instant messaging machine; it does
more than a messenger. Nowadays, Whatsapp tricks are very popular. You can
control the notification, mute contacts, backup conversions on Google drive and
many more. It is available for all mobile platforms, but still not available
for the latest version of Windows 10 PC or laptop.
If you are one of the computer lovers, then it is always not
possible to hold a mobile for chatting. So, in this tutorial you’ll learn, how
to free download Whatsapp for Windows 10, 8, 7 computers.
To use Whatsapp on computer, you need to download Whatsapp
latest version on your mobile first.
Open a browser and go to web.whatsapp.com on your
browser. It needs to authenticate with your to use it on your computer. Here the
complete tutorial to use Whatsapp on Web browser. One you successfully
connect your device with computer. You can easily access and send messages
directly on the web browser.
Cannot open the Outlook window. Invalid XML, the view cannot be loaded
click START and type: Outlook /resetnavpane
Start Outlook now.
Outlook.exe /ResetNavPane :
What does Outlook.exe /ResetNavPane do?
It clears and regenerates the Navigation Pane for the current profile. Basically, it removes all shortcuts and favorite folders from the Navigation Pane.
One of the most common issues with laptops is
overheating, something many people aren’t sure how to fix. We’ll help you
figure out what’s causing the heat and how to keep your notebook functioning at
a lower temperature.
Overheating computers can cause a lot of problems, from
seemingly random blue screens to data loss. You might not even know that it’s
the root of your issues, and before you know it you have a burnt-out
motherboard on your hands.
Let’s go step by and step and see how to deal with
overheating computers. We’ll be dealing primarily with laptops, but most of the
same principles apply to desktops as well.
The first thing you need to do is figure out where the
heat is coming from. No air flow means no heat transfer, so figure out where
the air vents are. Are they blowing hot air, or is there barely a breeze, even
when the fan is overtaxed?
Most commonly, an accumulation of dust in the vents and
fans through the cooling channels will be culprit in restricting air flow.
Cleaning it out will work best. Turn you laptop upside-down and look at what
you’ve got.
Unscrew the fan doors and you should be able to lift out
the fan and clean everything with a can of compressed air.
If none of the above methods helped cool your laptop
sufficiently, you might consider using a cooling pad, like this
Cool Lift Laptop Stand
Laptop Cooling Pad (USB Powered)
The fans will help direct cool air into the underside vents
of your laptop. Some even come with USB hubs and other bells and whistles.
Targus Thermal Cooling Pad
These are soft pads filled with special crystals that are
designed to conduct heat away from the source. You can find thermal cooling
pads in smaller sizes, too.
Basically you cannot make folder with no name on windows.
This trick will allow you to make folder without any name. This trick works on
any windows operating system.
How To Make Nameless Folder:
Before attempting this trick, try to make a folder with
no name and you will fail to do so.
- Make a New folder on desktop or where ever you want.
- Right click on this newly created folder and select Rename.
- Erase the text showing "new folder".
- Now keep Pressing Alt (i.e alter key) and type 255. If you are on laptop then you need to enable your Num Lock and type from the highlighted number keys not from those below function key.
- After that leave alt key and Press enter.
- Done you just created nameless folder.
In this tutorial you will learn to create an undeletable folder and rename locked Folders in Windows
Operating System. Most of the Peoples are not aware that it is possible to
create Undeletable, Locked folder in windows without any software. To Test this
concept just follow simple steps given below.
Try to make a new folder in windows & give it name
con, aux, lpt1, lpt2, lpt3 up to lpt9. You won't be allowed to create
folder with above mentioned names, because they are reserved words in
windows.
How to Create Undeletable and Locked Folder?
Go to Start and then Click on Run (ctrl+R)
Type cmd & hit enter (To open Command Prompt).
Remember you cannot create Undeletable & Locked folder
in your root directory (i.e. where the windows is installed) that means you
can't make this kind of folder in C: drive (if you installed windows on C:
/)
Type D: or E: and hit enter
Type md con\ and hit enter (md - make
directory)
You may use other words such as aux, lpt1, lpt2,
lpt3 up to lpt9 instead of con in above step.
Open that directory; you will see the folder created of
name con.
Try to delete that folder or rename that folder windows
will show the error message.
How to delete that folder?
It is not possible to delete that folder manually but you
can delete this folder by another way mentioned below.
Open Command Prompt
Type D: (if u created this type of folder in D:
drive) & hit enter
Type rd con\ (rd - remove directory)
Open that directory and the folder will not appear
because it is removed.
How to delete that folder?
It is not possible to delete that folder manually but you
can delete this folder by another way mentioned below.
- Open Command Prompt
- Type D: ( if u created this type of folder in D: drive) & hit enter
- Type rd con\ (rd - remove directory)
- Open that directory and the folder will not appear because it is removed.
How to convert webpage into PDF File?
In this post i will teach a simple trick or browser
feature that let you convert any web page into PSD file format, which
might help you to read your favourite articles offline.
1. Open the Google Chrome Browser on your PC or
MAC
2. Then go to the web page that you want to convert as a
PDF.
3. Now press Ctrl+P on Windows PC or Command+P if you are on
a Mac to Open the Print dialog on Chrome Browser.
4. Now Change the destination to “Save as PDF” and hit the
save button.
5. The current web page will instantly be downloaded as a
PDF document.
This is very simple and cool trick !!!!!!!!!! when you start you computer it will say "Welcome Back & your name"
and can use your own message..
Copy the below code in Notpad
Dim speaks, speech
speaks="Welcome Back, yourname"
Set speech=CreateObject("sapi.spvoice")
speech.Speak speaks
2. Put your name at the place of your name.
3. Save this with the name of welcome.vbs
4. Copy File welcome.vbs and paste it in bellow address.
For Windows-7 user.
C:\Users\Username\AppData\Roaming\Microsoft\Windows\Start Menu\Programs\Startup
For Windows-Xp user.
C:\Documents and Settings\All Users\Start Menu\Programs\Startup
Now just do logoff your computer and log on again...It will welcome you.
Android Apps to Watch Free Movies & TV Shows
Hulu
Hulu is one of the best ways to watch the entire
premium TV Shows and other movies for free right from your Android Smartphone
and Tablets. The app is available for free and you can get the best entertainment time
ahead within this app. You won't be asked for any subscription fees as well.
The app contains Movies, TV Shows and a number of Kids Shows you bring
entertainment on your phone's display. Get it now!
Show Box
Show Box is the best application that allows you to watch
and download your favorite Movies and TV Shows. Show
Box for Android is widely popular and is available for various smartphone
platforms. The app offers numerous features to get all the entertaining stuffs
in front of you. You can pick your favourite movie and can even download it
instantly.
Crackle
Crackle is undoubtedly the best Entertainment app available
in the market for an Android Platform. The app is amazingly popular as it
offers the best and decent user interface to get
your favorite TV Shows and Movies right on your display. You can get
the best user interface to select your item easily. Crackle is available
for free and you can download it from the following link easily.
Live Now! TV
Live Now! TV gets you a huge list of TV Channels to
be explored online within your smartphone. You can get the list of all the
available channels at the left side bar of the app. To watch any of the given
channels, you just need to select it and you will see the selected item on the
go right on your phone's display.
4oD
Watch all the exciting episodes of channel 4 with 4oD.
Instant streaming with Wi-Fi and your mobile data. Simple user interface
and categorized items makes things go easier. You can
even download your favourite episodes on your device on the go
with just one single tap on the screen. Downloading process
depends upon the network with which you are presently connected. After
downloading it, you can instantly watch it on your phone. Get 4oD now from the
following link.
Download and start watching your favourite Movies &
TV Shows for free.
8 Tips to speed up
your android Phone
1. Think about using a different launcher
Think about using a home alternative. There are quite a few
third party launchers out there that you can use. They are an alternative to
the launcher that comes with the Android. The Android home is quite complex and
takes up a fair amount of memory, RAM and processor power. A third party
launcher offers a strip down all of these functions, so that you are just
presented with a simple launching program.
2. Lower your settings on your phone
The home page (home/home screen) may often have its settings
lowered to a level that requires less processor power or memory. It is like
when you play PC games and you lower the graphics so that you can play the game
without it getting jerky. A similar thing may be done with an Android in many
cases.
3. Turn off the animations on your Android
The animations are the little things that happen whenever
you do something on your Android, such as when you open a tab or an app. These
animations are there for no other reason than to look pretty. People are averse
to computing software working for them, without a little bit of a preamble
first. This may be removed so that the animations no longer appear. You may
disable the animations on the screen, and here is how you do it:
Settings-> Display -> Animation.
Doing this is both pragmatic and will improve your Android
performance.
4. Disable the plugin browser
This is another thing you can do to increase the speed of
your Android. It removes yet another element that slowly sucks your processor
power and memory. It is a little drag factor that you may remove. Here is how
you do it:
Open Browser -> Settings -> Plugins.
5. Do not use live wallpaper
It looks pretty and it makes using your Android a little
more interesting, but it does have a drag factor on the performance of your
Android phone. So, it is better if you do not use live wallpaper.
6. Clear out your apps every now and again
Uninstall any applications that are not used anymore (unless
they cost you a lot of money). If you have apps that you use very infrequently
(maybe such as a currency converter), but that was also free, you should delete
it. If you need the free app then you can just download it. Removing apps will
free up some memory space. Memory usage will affect your Androids performance.
Imagine that your Android OS is a librarian, and the apps are books in the
Library. If there are fewer books then the librarian will find your Where’s
Wally books faster.
7. Replace your heavy apps with lighter ones
Your apps will take up a certain amount of processor power
and memory. Some apps are far slower than others, so uninstall the applications
that consume too much memory and replace them with others that have the same
function but consumes less. There are apps on the android Market whose coding
is not optimized which makes them run slower. Find the ones that are
better-optimized (have “tighter code” if you wish to use programmer parlance).
Heavy apps (ones that use lots of processor power and memory) may often be
loaded with features that you never even use. You may find other apps out there
that do less and yet still have all the features you need.
8. Remove or turn off background apps
Some of these will run without your knowledge. Which means
it may be time to have a good look at what your Android is actually up to. For
example, many people leave their GPS on in the background without realizing it
is drinking their processor power and memory.
Remove Windows is not Genuine -Windows8
Start -> Cmd
Right click it
Click Run as Administrator
And type below code one by one :-
takeown /f "%windir%\System32\slui.exe"
icacls "%windir%\System32\slui.exe" /deny *S-1-1-0:(X)
5> Restart your computer
Right click it
Click Run as Administrator
And type below code one by one :-
takeown /f "%windir%\System32\slui.exe"
icacls "%windir%\System32\slui.exe" /deny *S-1-1-0:(X)
5> Restart your computer
Now it’s Done Enjoy
Windows 10 Free Upgrade Available in 190 Countries Today
Upgrading to Windows 10 is easy if you have a genuine Windows 7 or Windows 8.1 PC or tablet. Starting today, a new notification on your task bar will alert you when your upgrade is ready to be installed. For business customers, Windows 10 is available to start deploying within your work environments and starting August 1, organizations who have volume licensing can upgrade to Windows 10 Enterprise and Windows 10 Education.
- Windows 10 is designed to be compatible with the hardware, software and peripherals you already own.
- Free updates help keep you current on features and security updates.
- With OneDrive online storage, you can easily share and keep your files up to date across all your devices, simply.
- Windows 10 is designed to run Office and Skype perfectly to increase your productivity
- You can easily switch between apps and stay organized with Snap and Task View.
- Continuum optimizes your apps and experience beautifully across touch and desktop modes.
Top Apps Available on Windows 10
The new Windows Store opens today and is now accepting new apps for Windows 10. The Windows Store offers one-stop shopping for popular free and paid apps, games, movies, TV shows and the latest music, which work across all Windows 10 devices. The new Windows Store is the only Store where you can use Cortana to control apps with your voice and get real-time notifications on your app tiles. All Windows Store content is certified by Microsoft to help keep your devices safer. In addition to existing Windows 8.1 apps such as Netflix, Flipboard, Mint.com, Asphalt 8: Airborne and The Weather Channel, the Windows Store provides a constant stream of new and updated Universal Windows Apps and games, including Twitter, “Minecraft: Windows 10 Edition beta”, Hulu, iHeartRadio, USA Today, Candy Crush Saga, and others including WeChat and QQ, which will launch soon. Check out our new Windows Store today
Picking an Android phone is tough you probably already have some criteria. However, for those who
just want to pick a phone and go, Google’s made a handy tool that helps you
decide which phone to get quickly.
The tool asks you a few questions to determine what kind of
activities you need your phone for, and more importantly how much you
use each one. Gaming, music, watching videos, fitness tracking and more all
factor in. Once you’ve selected a few activities, Google will give you a
selection of three Android phones. You can then remove phones you don’t like to
get a new suggestion, or filter the results by size, price, or how recently it
was released.
Clone Application
Whether you’re migrating to a new computer or doing a clean
install, life is easier when you take all your settings and tweaks with you. If
you don’t want to do a full backup and restore,
Clone Application backup's settings for
the most popular Windows programs so you can restore them later.
Clone Application essentially automates the process we detailed in our
Windows migration guide, it knows where each program stores its settings and
registry keys, and backs them all up in one fell swoop so you don’t have to do
the legwork yourself. It supports different Windows programs, can detect which
programs you have installed, and even has a section for manual backups so you
can include the programs it doesn’t support.
Clone Application is completely portable also, so you don’t have to
install anything. Just extract the program to its own folder on the desktop and
right-click it to launch it as an administrator. From there, check the programs
you want to back up, and click Start Clone App. It’ll back up all the necessary
files and registry keys to its folder, which you can then copy to your new
computer ->launch the program and click restore to put all your settings
back where they belong.
How do I stop pop-up or pop-under Internet ads?
There are hundreds of different software programs
that are designed to help stop, block, or prevent pop-up, pop-under, and other
Internet intrusive and annoying advertising on the Internet.
All recent browsers have some type of pop-up and pop-under
protection available and enabled.
- Microsoft Internet Explorer
- Mozilla Firefox
- Google Chrome
- Opera
- Open Internet Explorer
- Click Tools (press the Alt key if you don't see the Tools menu option)
- Click Options (or Internet options)
- Click the Privacy tab
At the bottom of the Privacy tab, you should have a Pop-up
Blocker section. If you want pop-ups to be blocked, check the "Block
pop-ups" option (may also be titled "Turn on Pop-Up Blocker").
You can also set additional settings, such as disabling the sound when a pop-up
is blocked or disable the information bar displayed when a pop-up is blocked,
by clicking the Settings button.
Mozilla Firefox Browser:
- Open Mozilla Firefox
- Click the Tools menu option.
- Click Options
- Click on the Content option in the Options window
By default, the "Block pop-up windows" option
should be checked. Check this option if it is currently unchecked. If there are
sites you want to allow pop-ups for, click the Exceptions button, enter the
allowed site address, and click the Allow button.
Users may also want to disable any pop-ups from any browser plug-ins, a tactic
for bypassing many pop-up blockers. To enable this feature in Firefox, follow
the steps below.
Open Mozilla Firefox
- In the URL field, type about:config and press enter.
- This should open the Firefox config window.
- Right-click on a black portion of the window and click New and then Integer.
- For the preference name, type privacy.popups.disable_from_plugins and click OK.
- For the value, type 2.
We also suggest you locate the privacy option
in the about:config screen and change the value of this setting to false.
Another option for Firefox users is to download and install
the Ad Block Plus add-on for Firefox. This extension will block most
pop-up ads from opening in Firefox.
Google Chrome Browser:
Google Chrome includes its own pop-up blocker utility and
does a good job at blocking most pop-ups by default.
- Open Google Chrome
- At the far right, inline with the address bar, click the Menu icon (titled "Customize and control Google Chrome").
- Select Settings
- At the bottom of the Settings page, click Show advanced settings
- In the Privacy section, click the Content settings button.
- In the Content settings window, scroll down to the Pop-ups section. If not already selected by default, select the "Do no allow any site to show pop-ups" option. You can also add sites to the exceptions list to allow pop-ups from those sites by clicking the Manage exceptions button.
- Another option for Google Chrome users is to download and install the Ad Block Plus extension for Chrome. This extension will block most pop-up ads from opening in Chrome
Opera Browser:
The latest version of Opera also includes its own pop-up
blocker and has it enabled by default. You can adjust how pop-ups are blocked
or allowed by following the steps below
- Open Opera
- Click the Opera button in the top left corner
- Click Settings
- Click Quick Preferences
- Within the Quick Preferences menu, you can choose "Block unwanted pop-ups" or "Block all pop-ups."
Windows 10 preview
Follow these steps to download Insider Preview:
- Sign up for the Windows Insider Program, if you haven't already.
- Read the system requirements.
- Click one of the Download links on this page to download a special file—it's called an ISO file—that you can use to install the preview.
- When the download is complete, transfer the ISO file to installation media such as a USB flash drive or DVD.
- Double-tap or double-click setup.exe from the installation media, and then follow the steps.
http://windows.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/preview-iso
CCNA
Cisco Certified Network Associate
PORT
The term port can refer to either physical or
virtual connection points. There are two kinds of port,
Physical port:
Physical network ports allow connecting cables to computers,
routers, modems and other peripheral devices. Several different types of
physical ports available on computer network hardware. A physical port, as
opposed to a virtual or logical port is an interface on a computer into which
you can insert a connector for a device.
Examples of Physical Port: RJ45 port (Ethernet/LAN/NIC
Port), Serial Port (RS-232), USB Port.
Virtual port:
Virtual
ports are part of TCP/IP networking. These ports allow software
applications to share hardware resources without interfering with each other.
Computers and routers automatically manage network traffic traveling via their
virtual ports.
Port numbers range from 0 to 65536, but only ports numbers 0
to 1024 are reserved for privileged services and designated as well-known
ports. This list of well-known port numbers specifies the port used by the
server process as its contact port.
| Port Number | Description |
|---|---|
| 1 | TCP Port Service Multiplexer (TCPMUX) |
| 5 | Remote Job Entry (RJE) |
| 7 | ECHO |
| 18 | Message Send Protocol (MSP) |
| 20 | FTP -- Data |
| 21 | FTP -- Control |
| 22 | SSH Remote Login Protocol |
| 23 | Telnet |
| 25 | Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) |
| 29 | MSG ICP |
| 37 | Time |
| 42 | Host Name Server (Nameserv) |
| 43 | WhoIs |
| 49 | Login Host Protocol (Login) |
| 53 | Domain Name System (DNS) |
| 69 | Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) |
| 70 | Gopher Services |
| 79 | Finger |
| 80 | HTTP |
| 103 | X.400 Standard |
| 108 | SNA Gateway Access Server |
| 109 | POP2 |
| 110 | POP3 |
| 115 | Simple File Transfer Protocol (SFTP) |
| 118 | SQL Services |
| 119 | Newsgroup (NNTP) |
| 137 | NetBIOS Name Service |
| 139 | NetBIOS Datagram Service |
| 143 | Interim Mail Access Protocol (IMAP) |
| 150 | NetBIOS Session Service |
| 156 | SQL Server |
| 161 | SNMP |
| 179 | Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) |
| 190 | Gateway Access Control Protocol (GACP) |
| 194 | Internet Relay Chat (IRC) |
| 197 | Directory Location Service (DLS) |
| 389 | Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) |
| 396 | Novell Netware over IP |
| 443 | HTTPS |
| 444 | Simple Network Paging Protocol (SNPP) |
| 445 | Microsoft-DS |
| 458 | Apple QuickTime |
| 546 | DHCP Client |
| 547 | DHCP Server |
| 563 | SNEWS |
| 569 | MSN |
| 1080 | Socks |
CCNA
Cisco Certified Network Associate
OSI Layer
1. Application Layer
This layer supports application and
end-user processes. Communication partners are identified, quality of service
is identified, user authentication and privacy are considered, and any constraints
on data syntax are identified. Everything at this layer is
application-specific. This layer provides application services for transfers-mail,
and other network software services. Telnet and FTP are
applications that exist entirely in the application level. Tiered application
architectures are part of this layer.
Eg: WWW Browser, FTP, HTTP, Telnet,
Nfs, Snmp
2. Presentation layer
This layer provides independence
from differences in data representation (e.g., encryption) by translating
from application to network format, and vice versa. The presentation layer
works to transform data into the form that the application layer can accept.
This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network,
providing freedom from compatibility problems. It is sometimes called the
syntax layer.
Eg: encryption, ASCII,
EBCDIC, TIFF, GIF, PICT, JPEG, MPEG, MIDI.
3. Session Layer
This layer establishes, manages
and terminates connections between applications. The session layer sets
up, coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges, and dialogues between
the applications at each end. It deals with session and connection coordination.
Eg: NFS, NetBios names, RPC, SQL.
4. Transport Layer
This layer provides transparent
transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and is responsible for
end-to-end error recovery and flow control. It ensures complete data
transfer.
Eg: SPX, TCP, UDP.
5. Network Layer
This layer provides switching and routing technologies,
creating logical paths, known as virtual circuits, for transmitting data
from node to node. Routing and forwarding are functions of this
layer, as well as addressing, internetworking, error handling, congestion control
and packet sequencing.
Eg: AppleTalk DDP, IP, IPX.
6. Data link layer
At this layer, data packets are encoded and
decoded into bits. It furnishes transmission protocol knowledge and
management and handles errors in the physical layer, flow control and frame
synchronization. The data link layer is divided into two sub layers: The Media
Access Control (MAC) layer and the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer.
The MAC sub layer controls how a computer on the network gains access to the
data and permission to transmit it. The LLC layer controls frame synchronization,
flow control and error checking.
Eg: PPP, FDDI, ATM, IEEE
802.5/ 802.2, IEEE 802.3/802.2, HDLC, Frame Relay.
7. Physical layer
This layer conveys the bit stream
- electrical impulse, light or radio signal through the network at
the electrical and mechanical level. It provides the hardware means
of sending and receiving data on a carrier, including defining cables, cards
and physical aspects. Fast Ethernet, RS232, and ATM are protocols with
physical layer components.
Eg: Ethernet, FDDI, B8ZS, V.35,
V.24, RJ45